by Derek Murphy | Myth & Folklore
Introduction:
Roman mythology, with its powerful deities and riveting tales, has been a lynchpin of Western civilization’s cultural fabric. While it borrowed heavily from its Greek predecessors, Roman myths were distinct in character, reflecting the ethos and values of the burgeoning Roman Empire. The gods and myths of Rome have not merely been forgotten tales; they have significantly influenced art, literature, and even political discourse over millennia.
Major Gods of the Roman Pantheon
Jupiter, King of the Gods
Jupiter, or Jove, was the chief deity of the Roman pantheon. Analogous to the Greek Zeus, he was the god of the sky and thunder and played a central role in the myths and rituals of ancient Rome, and was venerated as the protector of the state and its laws.
Juno, mother of the Gods
Juno, Jupiter’s consort, was the protector of women and the patroness of marriage and childbirth. As Hera in Greek mythology, she had significant roles in many myths, often showcasing her jealous and vengeful nature.
Mars, the God of War
While Ares, the Greek god of war, was viewed with ambivalence, Mars was a central figure in Roman mythology. As the father of Romulus and Remus (the founders of Rome) and a symbol of Rome’s martial might, Mars was both a protector and a conqueror.
Venus, the Divine Beauty
Venus, the Roman equivalent of the Greek Aphrodite, was the goddess of love and beauty. She played pivotal roles in many myths, including the tale of the Trojan War and the story of her ill-fated lover, Adonis. She was revered for her role in affairs of the heart.
Neptune and the Seas
Neptune, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Poseidon, ruled the seas with his powerful trident. Neptune’s might was both feared and revered. He could conjure storms and calm waters alike, reflecting the unpredictable nature of the vast oceans. He was a tumultuous god, causing shipwrecks when angered but also safe voyage to deserving sailors.
Minerva, Goddess of Wisdom
Mirroring the Greek Athena, Minerva was born fully grown from Jupiter’s forehead. She was the goddess of wisdom, arts and crafts, trade, and strategy in war. The famous Parthenon temple in Rome was dedicated to her.
Famous Roman Myths and Legends
The Founding of Rome
Romulus and Remus, twin brothers raised by a she-wolf, are central to Rome’s foundation myth. The tale encompasses themes of betrayal, as Romulus kills Remus in a dispute over where to establish the city.
Excerpt from Livy’s “History of Rome”:
“…they were seized with a desire to build a city in the locality where they had been exposed. But ambition followed closely upon the design and led to a difference of opinion…”
Aeneas, the Trojan Hero
Aeneas’s journey from the ashes of Troy to the establishment of Roman ancestry is documented in Virgil’s Aeneid. This epic illustrates divine intervention, heroism, and the destined rise of Rome.
Excerpt from Virgil’s “Aeneid”:
“I sing of arms and a man, who first from the shores of Troy, exiled by fate, came to Italy and the Lavinian shores.”
The Rape of Proserpina
Pluto’s abduction of Proserpina and her mother Ceres’s grief-stricken reaction, which plunged the world into winter, is a tale that explains the cycle of the seasons.
Excerpt from Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”:
“While she played in the meadow, and while she was gathering flowers, and while she admired them, Pluto saw her, loved her, and carried her off…”
Cupid and Psyche
One of the most enchanting tales is that of the love between Cupid (the Roman version of the Greek Eros) and Psyche. Despite being a mortal, Psyche’s beauty rivaled that of Venus, leading the jealous goddess to send her son, Cupid, to make Psyche fall in love with the most despicable of men. Instead, Cupid himself falls for her, leading to a series of trials set by Venus for Psyche, tests of love, trust, and determination.
Excerpt from Apuleius’s “The Golden Ass”:
“…she entered the lofty building and became aware of a divine figure that lay there. Although she could not see it clearly, she could hear it breathing as it slept. She realized that this was the body of Cupid himself.”
The Tale of Hercules
While Hercules is a figure borrowed from Greek myths, Romans revered him for his strength and his Twelve Labors. His deeds, trials, and eventual ascension to godhood after death resonated with the Roman ideals of valor and endurance.
The Transformation of Daphne
A nymph named Daphne, pursued by an infatuated Apollo, was transformed into a laurel tree to escape his advances. The laurel then became sacred to Apollo and symbolized victory in Roman culture.
Excerpt from Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”:
“Then, in a moment, a heavy numbness seized her limbs, thin bark closed over her breast, her hair turned into leaves, her arms into branches, her feet so swift a moment ago stuck fast in slow-growing roots, her face was lost in the canopy.”
Vulcan and Venus
Vulcan, god of the forge, was married to Venus, the goddess of love. However, Venus had many affairs, most notably with Mars, the god of war. The tale symbolizes the age-old battle between love and war, passion, and craftsmanship.
The Kidnapping of Ganymede
Ganymede, a beautiful Trojan prince, was taken to the heavens by Jupiter, where he became the cup-bearer to the gods. This myth often symbolizes the Roman ideal of male beauty and youth.
Excerpt from Virgil’s “Aeneid”:
“Then Ganymede will pour Jove’s wine, while Juno serves beside him, and Venus dances joyously before them among her troop of Idaean Nymphs.”
Narcissus and Echo
Narcissus, a beautiful youth, falls in love with his reflection, leading to his transformation into a flower. Echo, a nymph who loved him, could only repeat the words of others due to a curse and thus couldn’t express her love.
Excerpt from Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”:
“Echo returned his love but could not tell him so… she only watched and longed… her body wasted by longing… until only her voice and her bones remained.”
Legacy and Influence in Modern Culture
Roman mythology’s echoes are pervasive in contemporary society. From modern literature like Rick Riordan’s “The Heroes of Olympus” series to blockbuster movies and Netflix series that reimagine the old tales, the myths of ancient Rome remain ever relevant. Sculptures, paintings, and even city architecture, like the Roman-inspired Washington D.C. landmarks, stand as testament to Rome’s undying influence.
This introduction into Roman mythology, while expansive, barely scratches the surface of the depth and richness of these ancient tales. They remain, even today, vital keys to understanding the psyche, values, and aspirations of ancient Rome and its vast empire.
by Derek Murphy | Myth & Folklore
In the heart of ancient Europe, amidst the chilling winds and snowy landscapes of Scandinavia, a tapestry of myths and legends was woven, one that would resonate throughout the ages and influence cultures far and wide. Norse mythology, with its pantheon of powerful gods, legendary creatures, and epic narratives, is not only a reflection of the values, beliefs, and fears of the Vikings but also a testament to humanity’s innate desire to understand the cosmos and its place within it.
The Cosmos and Creation
The Norse cosmos is a complex web of realms, connected by the great World Tree, Yggdrasil. At its beginning, there was only the gaping void of Ginnungagap, flanked by the realms of fire (Muspelheim) and ice (Niflheim). From their collision emerged Ymir, the first giant, and Audhumla, the primeval cow. The godly triad of Odin, Vili, and Vé, descendants of giants themselves, eventually slew Ymir and crafted the universe from his corpse.
The Aesir and Vanir: The Principal Gods
- Odin – The Allfather and chief god, associated with war, poetry, and wisdom. He sacrificed an eye at Mímir’s well for knowledge and hung from Yggdrasil to gain the secrets of the runes.Excerpt from the Poetic Edda’s Hávamál:
“I know that I hung on a windy tree
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows
from where its roots run.”
- Thor – The god of thunder, protector of Midgard (Earth), wielding his mighty hammer, Mjölnir. A hero in countless tales, he frequently confronts giants and the world-serpent, Jörmungandr.
- Freyja and Freyr – Twin deities from the Vanir family, associated with love, fertility, and prosperity. Freyja, also linked to war and death, has a chariot drawn by cats, while Freyr wields a ship and boar, symbols of prosperity.
- Loki – The trickster god, whose cunning and mischief bring both entertainment and calamity to the gods. His actions, including the betrayal leading to the death of Balder, the god of light, set the stage for Ragnarök, the apocalypse.
Sagas, Heroes, and Morality
Norse tales aren’t limited to gods. Heroes like Sigurd, who slew the dragon Fafnir, and the Volsungs exemplify values of bravery, honor, and fate, illustrating the Vikings’ beliefs in destiny and the inexorable nature of time.
Ragnarök: The Twilight of the Gods
Foretold in ancient prophecies, Ragnarök is the cataclysmic event wherein gods, giants, and monsters clash in a final battle. Odin faces Fenrir the wolf, Thor confronts Jörmungandr, and the world is submerged in water, paving the way for a rebirth.
Norse Mythology in Modern Popular Culture
The allure of Norse myths has not waned. J.R.R. Tolkien, inspired by the Norse sagas, crafted his Middle-Earth in “The Lord of the Rings.” Marvel Comics revitalized Thor and Loki, leading to their cinematic renditions in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Series like Netflix’s “Vikings” and the PlayStation game “God of War” further showcase the lasting intrigue these myths hold.
Neil Gaiman, in his book “Norse Mythology,” observes:
“The Norse myths are the myths of a chilly place, with long, long winter nights and endless summer days, myths of a people who did not entirely trust or even like their gods, although they respected and feared them.”
The Legends of Norse Mythology
Norse mythology is a vast tapestry of tales that tell of gods, giants, dwarfs, and humans, all interconnected in a complex web of relationships, rivalries, and quests. Let’s delve into some of the most popular and enduring stories:
The Binding of Fenrir
The gods, foreseeing that the wolf Fenrir (Loki’s offspring) would bring about their doom, decided to bind him. After two failed attempts with chains, the gods commissioned the dwarfs to craft a magical ribbon called Gleipnir. Fenrir, sensing deceit, only allowed himself to be bound if one of the gods placed their hand in his mouth as a pledge of good faith. The brave Tyr stepped forward. When Fenrir realized he couldn’t break free, he bit off Tyr’s hand.
The Theft of Thor’s Hammer
Thor’s hammer, Mjölnir, was stolen by the giant Thrym, who demanded Freyja as his bride in exchange. To retrieve the hammer, Thor disguised himself as Freyja and went to Thrym’s abode. During the wedding feast, Thor’s identity was almost revealed multiple times, but quick thinking and explanations kept his secret. When Mjölnir was finally brought forth to bless the union, Thor seized it and unleashed his wrath upon Thrym and his kin.
The Birth of Sleipnir
Loki once sabotaged a deal between the gods and a giant builder, who was constructing Asgard’s walls. The builder demanded the sun, moon, and goddess Freyja if he finished on time. With the help of his horse Svadilfari, it seemed the builder would succeed. In desperation, Loki transformed into a mare, distracting Svadilfari and halting the construction. Later, Loki gave birth to an eight-legged horse, Sleipnir, who became Odin’s majestic steed.
The Mead of Poetry
Odin sought the Mead of Poetry, a drink that bestowed the gift of eloquence and wisdom. Guarded by the giantess Gunnlöd, the mead was kept in three containers within a mountain. Odin, through cunning and charm, managed to consume all the mead. Transforming into an eagle, he flew towards Asgard with the giant Suttungr in pursuit. Upon reaching Asgard, he spat out the mead into waiting containers. However, a few drops fell to Midgard, the realm of humans, and from these, bad poets take their inspiration.
The Apples of Idunn
Idunn, the goddess of youth, possessed apples that granted the gods immortality. Loki, coerced by the giant Thiazi, betrayed the gods and led to Idunn’s capture. Without her apples, the gods began to age. Loki, threatened by the gods, transformed into a falcon to rescue Idunn from Thiazi, who pursued them in eagle form. As they neared Asgard, a fire was lit, burning Thiazi’s feathers, causing him to fall, and he was then slain by the gods.
The Death of Balder
Balder, beloved of all gods, dreamt of his death, causing distress in Asgard. His mother, Frigg, secured promises from all things to not harm Balder, except mistletoe, which she deemed harmless. Loki, aware of this oversight, fashioned a dart from mistletoe. He tricked the blind god Höðr into throwing it at Balder, leading to Balder’s death. This event was the beginning of the end, setting the stage for Ragnarök.
Ragnarök: The Fate of the Gods
This prophesied end battle saw gods, giants, and mythical creatures clash. Odin battled Fenrir, Thor faced Jörmungandr, and Freyr confronted the fire giant Surtr. The world was consumed by fire and water, heralding an end but also paving the way for renewal with a new generation of gods and the rebirth of the world.
Norse tales resonate deeply with themes of fate, heroism, deception, and cosmic renewal. Their narratives, rich in symbolism and complexity, have inspired countless adaptations, from Wagner’s operas to modern movies and literature, ensuring that the Viking spirit lives on in the collective consciousness.
Conclusion
Norse mythology, with its intricate tales and multifaceted gods, remains an indelible part of world literature, a mirror to the Viking soul, and a testament to humanity’s eternal quest for understanding and meaning. It reminds us of the transient nature of life, the inevitability of fate, and the timeless tales of valor and sacrifice.
by Derek Murphy | Myth & Folklore
Introduction: The Tragic Backdrop
Antigone is one of my favorite stories from Greek mythology and inspired my PhD Thesis: it’s about one young woman’s rebellion against arbitrary tyranny, and all the drama and pathos that ensues (ending up with her buried alive as a bride of death…)
Antigone is the third play in a trilogy written by Sophocles, coming after “Oedipus Rex” and “Oedipus at Colonus.” It delves into the conflicts of individual duty versus law and personal moral code versus the dictates of society.
The Prelude to Tragedy
Following the deaths of her brothers Eteocles and Polynices, who killed each other in a battle for Thebes, Antigone faces a moral dilemma. Creon, the king of Thebes, decrees that Eteocles will be honored with proper burial rites, but Polynices, deemed a traitor, shall be left unburied. This act is a severe punishment, as it condemns his spirit to unrest.
Antigone’s Act of Defiance
Believing in her familial duty and the unwritten laws of the gods, Antigone decides to bury Polynices, defying King Creon’s decree. When caught, she does not deny her actions, asserting her moral obligation.
Creon’s Inflexibility
Creon, determined to uphold the law and assert his authority, refuses to relent, even when his son Haemon, who is betrothed to Antigone, pleads on her behalf. Creon believes that yielding would undermine his position as king.
The Gripping Climax
As punishment, Antigone is entombed alive in a cave. In the cave, she takes her life. This act leads to a chain of tragic events: Haemon, finding her dead, kills himself, and his mother (and Creon’s wife), Eurydice, takes her life out of grief.
The Deeper Meaning and Interpretation
Antigone raises profound questions about loyalty, honor, and the human duty to stand against injustice. The play forces readers to ponder whether moral duty should override civil law and the consequences of absolute authority.
Quotes from “Antigone”
“I was born to join in love, not hate.” A testament to Antigone’s unwavering belief in familial love and duty.
“There is no happiness where there is no wisdom.” A reminder of the importance of understanding and insight in leadership.
Legacy in Literature and Popular Culture
“Antigone” has inspired countless adaptations, including plays, movies, and novels. Its themes of resistance against oppressive authority, the ethics of leadership, and individual morality versus the state have resonated through time, making it relevant even today.
FAQs
- Why does Antigone choose to bury Polynices despite the decree? She believes in the unwritten laws of the gods and feels it’s her moral and familial duty to ensure her brother receives proper burial rites.
- What is the central theme of “Antigone”? The play primarily grapples with the conflict between personal duty and the laws of the state, as well as the consequences of inflexible authority.
- How does the story reflect on the nature of tragedy? “Antigone” exemplifies the essence of Greek tragedy, where characters’ fates are sealed by their inherent flaws, decisions, and the inescapable will of the gods.
Conclusion
“Antigone” remains a timeless work, exploring the boundaries of duty, love, and moral integrity. As readers or viewers witness the unfolding tragedy of steadfast Antigone against the unbending Creon, they are forced to confront their beliefs about justice, leadership, and moral duty.
PS I wrote a short Antigone retelling, as a scifi space story, and it’s pretty great – get it for free on my homepage.
